Gender in Translation Essay

Abstract Metaphors are taken to be the most fundamental form of figurative language, carrying the assumption that terms literally connected with one object can be transferred to another object. A writer/speaker uses metaphor more often than not with the intentions of introducing a new object/concept, offering a more precise meaning, or simply presenting a more poetic effect to his text/speech. The main focus of this study is image metaphors of color in the Shahnameh of Ferdowsi. The study set out to determine how this particular figure of speech is rendered by reviewing two English translations of the work. The framework of the study was Newmark’s (1988a) seven suggested procedures for translating metaphors. In addition to determining which of these procedures have been applied in the two translations, the study also aimed at discovering whether any new procedures might have been applied. The study also attempted to find out whether any exclusive patterns were observed in each translator’s rendering of the discussed items. The study concluded that out of the seven procedures proposed by Newmark for translating metaphors, Warner & Warner applied five procedures and Davis applied all seven of the procedures in the translation of image metaphors of color. No new procedure was observed in their translations. The translators’ choices of procedures for translating these specific items showed that Warner & Warner had a tendency towards the first procedure which resulted in a literal translation of the particular metaphor, whereas Davis had a tendency towards the other six  procedures which all led to explicitation, simplification and the production of a reader-oriented text. Key terms: the Shahnameh, figurative language, metaphor, image metaphor of color, translation procedure 1. Introduction Translation, as Catford (1965) defines it, is â€Å"an act of transference, in which a text from the source language is replaced by its equivalent in the target language† (p. 20). Newmark’s (1988b, p. 5) more modern version of the term is â€Å"often, though not by any means always, rendering the meaning of a text into another language in the way that the author intended the text. † Even the mere thought of inferring from these two definitions that the task of a translator and the whole translation process is a simple one seems a naivete on the part of the inexperienced. Any given source text intended for translation, regardless of its text-type, is required to undergo a close reading in order to understand what it is about, and then an analysis from the point of view of the translator. The analysis stage consists of determining the intention of the text – which, according to Newmark (1988a), represents the SL writer’s attitude to the subject matter – and also the style in which it is written. Being attentive to the selected lexicon, the syntax, figures of speech, neologisms, punctuations, names, and many more is a vital role the translator plays in the process of translation. In the case of poetry, apart from all the above features there is a surplus of sound effects such as rhyme, meter, assonance, alliteration, stress, onomatopoeia. The most common goal among translators is, and always should be, to create the same effect on the target reader as the original writer had intended for his readers. In Nida’s own words, â€Å"the relationship between receptor and message should be substantially the same as that which existed between the original receptors and the message† (Nida, 1964a, p. 159). Understanding and analyzing figurative language in a text, as mentioned above, is one of the difficult processes in translation. One of these figures of speech is metaphor which is considered by linguists as the most basic where one object is used to describe another object and both objects are essentially disparate entities, but common in one or more attributes. In the following section, the theoretical preliminaries of the study will be presented, which includes an overview of metaphor, concerning its definition, classifications, identification, and also translation procedures introduced by Newmark (1988a) on the translation of metaphors in general. The image metaphor of color in particular will also be discussed along with several exemplifications. Thereafter, a selection of the collected data will be presented, analyzed and discussed. The last section will include the conclusion of the study. 2. Theoretical Preliminaries 2. 1. Definition of Metaphor Metaphor, as stated in the Merriam Webster online dictionary, is etymologically from Greek, from metapherein, meaning ‘to transfer’ and from meta- + pherein, meaning ‘to bear’. It is defined by the same source as â€Å"a figure of speech, in which a word or phrase literally denoting one kind of object or idea is used in place of another to suggest a likeness or analogy between them. † One of Shakespeare’s most famous and oft-quoted lines, ‘All the world’s a stage’, is an example of a metaphor, where he indicates that ‘the world’ and ‘stage’ are analogous. According to Richards (1936), a metaphor consists of two parts, tenor andvehicle, also introduced as object and image by Newmark (1988a), respectively. The tenor is the term to which attributes are ascribed and the vehicle is the term from which attributes are borrowed. The properties of the vehicle which apply to the tenor in a given metaphor are namedgrounds of a metaphor, also known as the sense of a metaphor. Therefore, in the example given above, ‘world’ is the tenor or object, and ‘stage’ is the vehicle or image. The ground of this metaphor is more apparent when the next two lines are added: All the world’s a stage And all the men and women are merely players, They have their exits and their entrances This metaphor is extended through adding another pair of tenor and vehicle, i. e. ‘men and women’ is the second tenor and ‘players’ is the second vehicle. Therefore, as the actors on stage have an entrance and also an exit, the inhabitants of the world do as well, their entrance to this world being ‘birth’ and their exit being ‘death’. 2. 2. Classifications of Metaphors Metaphors have been categorized in different ways by different linguists. Black (1962a, p. 25) asserts that â€Å"the only entrenched classification is grounded in the trite opposition between ‘dead’ and ‘live’ metaphors. † He adds that â€Å"this is no more helpful than, say, treating a corpse as a special case of a person: A so- called dead metaphor is not a metaphor at all, but merely an expression that no longer has a pregnant metaphorical use†. However, he does present a classification for metaphors, but not before declaring that â€Å"if the ‘actuality’ of a metaphor †¦ is important enough to be marked, one might consider replacing the dead and alive contrast by a set of finer discriminations†; hence, the following classification (ibid, p. 25): 1. extinct metaphors: expressions whose etymologies, genuine or fancied, suggest a metaphor beyond resuscitation (a muscle as a little mouse, musculus) 2. dormant metaphors: those expressions where the original, now usually unnoticed, metaphor can be usefully restored (obligation as involving some kind of bondage) 3.  active metaphors: those expressions, that are, and are perceived to be, actively metaphoric He continues further to discriminate between two types of active metaphor: an emphatic metaphor whose â€Å"producer will allow no variation upon or substitute for the words used†, and a resonant metaphor, which supports â€Å"a high degree of implicative elaboration† (ibid, p. 26). On this account, he calls a metaphor of marked emphasis and resonance a strong metaphor, and in contrast, a metaphor of relatively low emphasis or resonance a weak metaphor. Lakoff (1977) made a revolutionary contribution to the study of metaphors when he suggested a new theory of metaphor which basically stated that metaphors are â€Å"fundamentally conceptual, not linguistic, in nature† (Lakoff, in Ortony, 1993, p. 244), which resulted in the advent of the conceptual or cognitive theory of metaphor. In his proposal of the theory, he does not provide us with any specific classification for metaphors, but rather, he only refers to them in his writings as he explains and elaborates on the theory. He states that conceptual metaphors â€Å"map one conceptual domain onto another† (ibid, p.  229). On the other hand, the novel metaphors of a language are, except for image metaphors, â€Å"extensions of this large conventional system† (ibid, p. 240). Therefore, it can be implied that he believes most metaphors to be ‘conceptual metaphors’ and some others to be ‘novel metaphors’ under which ‘image metaphors’ are subcategorized. However, more than twenty years after Black’s declaration of his standpoint on the categorization of metaphors, Newmark (1988b) was still a faithful believer in the dead/live metaphor classification, as he distinguishes six types of metaphors, beginning with dead metaphors: 1.dead metaphor: this type of metaphor â€Å"frequently relates to universal terms of space and time, the main part of the body, general ecological features and the main human activities† (ibid, p. 106). Dead metaphors have lost their figurative value through overuse and their images are hardly evident. Some examples of a dead metaphor include ‘at the bottom of the hill’, ‘face of the mountains’, and ‘crown of glory’. 2. cliche metaphor: this type of metaphor is known to have outlived its usefulness, and is â€Å"used as a substitute for clear thought, often emotively, but without corresponding to the facts of the matter† (ibid, p.107). Some examples include ‘a jewel in the crown’, ‘to make one’s mark’, and ‘backwater’. 3. stock or standard metaphor: this type of metaphor is defined by Newmark (1988b, p. 108) as â€Å"an established metaphor, which in an informal context is an efficient and concise method of covering a physical and/or mental situation both referentially and pragmatically. † He also states that stock metaphors, in contrast to dead metaphors, are â€Å"not deadened by overuse† (ibid). Examples of this type also mentioned by Newmark are: ‘to oil the wheels’, ‘he’s in a giving humour’, and ‘he’s on the eve of getting married’. 4. adapted metaphor: this type of metaphor is actually a stock metaphor that has been adapted into a new context by its speaker or writer, for example, the stock metaphor ‘carrying coals to Newcastle’ can be turned into an adapted metaphor by saying ‘ almost carrying coals to Newcastle’. 5. recent metaphor: this type of metaphor is produced through coining and is spread in the SL rapidly. Examples of this kind are ‘spastic’, meaning stupid, and ‘skint’, meaning without money. 6.original metaphor: this type of metaphor is â€Å"created or quoted by the SL writer†, and in the broadest sense, â€Å"contains the core of an important writer’s message, his personality, his comment on life† (ibid, p. 112). 2. 3. Identifying Metaphors The recognition of a metaphor in a certain text or speech may be rather easy for native speakers, but when it comes to a non-native, the challenge begins. The supposition that an expression is a metaphor when it yields a false or absurd meaning when interpreted literally is not reliable â€Å"because not all metaphors have false literal interpretations† (Way, 1991, p.14). This unreliability is proven by Way when she exemplifies through the following lyrics of a song: ‘A rock feels no pain, and an island never cries’. This statement is a metaphor, but it is also â€Å"literally true; rocks do not feel pain, and islands are not the kind of things that can cry† (ibid). But how do we identify it as a metaphor, even when the literal meaning seems true? Way (1991, p. 14) explains: â€Å"Perhaps because, while not actually false, talking about rocks feeling pain and islands crying is certainly a peculiar combination; maybe we can identify metaphors by their odd juxtaposition of ideas. † A more classical way of identifying metaphors, which again is not reliable, is the form ‘x is a y’. Although many metaphors do take this form, many more do not. As Way exemplifies through Shakespeare’s ‘Let slip the dogs of war’, she states that although this is clearly a metaphor, but â€Å"it does not fit the form of ‘x is a y’, for we are not comparing dogs to war, but rather to armies, something which is never explicitly mentioned in the phrase† (ibid, p. 15). She goes on to explain that even the syntactic structure of a metaphor can not be proof of its essence, as it has no consistent syntactic form. She provides an example by Saskice, where it is shown how one â€Å"metaphor can be rephrased as a statement, a question or an exclamation† (ibid): The moonlight sleeps sweetly upon the bank. Does the moonlight sleep sweetly upon the bank? How sweet the moonlight sleeps upon the bank! She also mentions that a metaphor’s focus can be of any part of speech. In the following examples by Saskice provided by Way (1991, p. 15), it is stated that â€Å"the focus is first a verb, then a noun, and finally a participle†: The smoke danced from the chimney. The trees bowed in the dance of the seasons. Dancing waters surrounded the canoe. According to all the above, there is no reliable method for identifying a metaphor. The more we strive to analyze a metaphor, the more we understand that its creation and comprehension are challenging tasks, specifically for the non-native speaker. 2. 4. Translating Metaphors Newmark (1988b) proposes the following seven strategies for translating metaphors; the examples included for each strategy are provided by Tajalli (2005, p. 107): 1. Reproducing the same image in the TL. Play with someone’s feelings > 2. Replacing the image in the SL with a standard TL image which does not clash with the TL culture I got it off my chest > 3. Translation of metaphor by simile, retaining the image The coast was only a long green line > 4. Translation of metaphor (or simile) by simile plus sense, or occasionally metaphor plus sense He is an owl > 5. Conversion of metaphor to sense To keep the pot boiling > 6. Deletion. If the metaphor is redundant or serves no practical purpose, there is a case for its deletion, together with its sense component 7. Translation of metaphor by the same metaphor combined with sense. The addition of a gloss or an explanation by the translator is to ensure that the metaphor will be understood The tongue is fire > . 2. 5. Image Metaphors of Color As mentioned earlier, image metaphor is a subcategory of Lakoff’s ‘novel metaphor’. He distinguishes between conceptual metaphor and image metaphor due to their distinct mapping processes. The conceptual metaphor maps one conceptual domain onto another, often with many concepts in the source domain mapped onto many corresponding concepts in the target domain, whereas the image metaphor maps only one image onto one other image; thus, Lakoff (1977) calls them ‘one-shot metaphors’. The following poem, interpreted by Louis Watchman (as cited in Ortony, 1993, p. 231), contains several image mappings: My horse with a hoof like a striped agate, with his fetlock like a fine eagle plume: my horse whose legs are like quick lightning whose body is an eagle-plumed arrow: my horse whose tail is like a trailing black cloud. He continues by explaining that â€Å"Metaphoric image mappings work in the same way as all other metaphoric mappings: by mapping the structure of one domain onto the structure of another. But here, the domains are conventional mental images† (ibid, p. 229). Therefore, image metaphors map one attribute of the source domain onto the target domain. Image mapping may involve physical part-whole relationships, as in the following example extracted from The Descriptions of King Lent, translated by J.M. Cohen (ibid, p. 230): His toes were like the keyboard of a spinet. Lakoff explains that â€Å"The words do not tell us that an individual toe corresponds to an individual key on the keyboard. The words are prompts for us to perform a conceptual mapping between conventional mental images† (ibid). Image mapping may also involve a dynamic image, as in the following lines by Shakespeare (as cited in Hawkes, 1972, p. 46), where the movement of the curtains is mapped onto the movement of the eye: The fringed curtains of thine eye advance,  And say what thou sees yond. Other attributes, such as colors, may also be mapped, which are the main focus of the present study. The following lines by Shakespeare (ibid, p. 47) map the whiteness of the lily and also ivory onto the girl: Full gently now she takes him by the hand, A lily prison’d in a gaol of snow, Or ivory in an alabaster band: So white a friend engirts so white a foe. There are many examples of image metaphors of color in the Shahnameh, where the attribute of color has been mapped onto the target domain. The following translation of a couplet in the Shahnameh, produced by Warner & Warner, contains four image metaphors (of which two are similes), but only in two of them is the attribute of color intended to be mapped; the whiteness of camphor is mapped onto the character’s hair, and the redness of a rose onto his cheeks: His stature cypress-like, his face a sun, His hair like camphor and his rose-red cheeks (Warner and Warner, 1925, vol. 1, p. 191) Also in the following example from the Shahnameh, Davis has compared blood to the redness of wine in this metaphor, even including the sense. But here, the metaphor has been applied simply as a device for making the text more poetic, as Way (1991, p. 33) discussed about the substitution theory of metaphor. He saw Sohrab in the midst of the Persian ranks, the ground beneath his feet awash with wine-red blood. (Davis, p. 205) 2. 6. Formal and Dynamic Equivalence Nida (1964) divides equivalence in two different types in his article entitled ‘Principles of Correspondence’, i. e. formal and dynamic equivalence. He depicts formal equivalence as a focus on the message, in both its formal aspects and its content. Thus, in a translation from â€Å"poetry to poetry, sentence to sentence, and concept to concept† (Nida, in Venuti 2000, p. 129), the concern is formal equivalence. In this type of equivalence, the message produced in the TT should match the different elements of the ST as closely as possible. Nida further explains that a gloss translationtypifies formal equivalence. In this type of translation, he states, â€Å"the translator attempts to reproduce as literally and meaningfully as possible the form and content of the original† (ibid). In order to be comprehensible, such a translation â€Å"would require numerous footnotes† (ibid). This structural equivalence seems to be rather identical to Larson’smodified literal translation, where the translation is basically literal, but with modifications to the order and grammar of the ST, so as to produce â€Å"acceptable sentence structure in the receptor language† (Larson, 1984, p. 16). To a great extent, it also resembles Newmark’s semantic translation, which he states, â€Å"attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original† (Newmark, 1988a, p.39). Dynamic equivalence, on the other hand, maintains that â€Å"the relationship between receptor and message should be substantially the same as that which existed between the original receptors and the message† (Nida, in Venuti 2000, p. 129). In a translation of dynamic equivalence, the target readership is not necessarily required to understand the SL culture in order to understand the message. Most importantly, this type of equivalence â€Å"aims at complete naturalness of expression† (ibid) , and is also based on the principle of equivalent effect, which maintains that the translator should produce the same effect on his own readers as the SL author produced on the original readers. Similar to Nida’s dynamic equivalence is the traditional idiomatic translationdiscussed in Larson (1984). â€Å"The translator’s goal should be to reproduce in the receptor language a text which communicates the same message as the SL, but using the natural grammatical and lexical choices of the receptor language† (ibid, p. 17). Also rather similar to this type of equivalence is Newmark’s communicative translation, which he claims, â€Å"attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original† (Newmark, 1988a, p. 39). According to the above-mentioned, after comparing Warner & Warner’s (1925) and Davis’ (2007) English translations of the Shahnameh with the original, it was concluded that the first translation is a semantic translation, while the second one is a communicative translation. Warner & Warner have translated poetry into poetry and also strived at preserving the archaic tone of the original. Furthermore, they have indicated in their Introduction to the translation that many explanatory notes have been added; hence leading to a semantic translation. Davis, on the other hand, has converted poetry into prose, with occasional lines of verse in some episodes. He also explains in his Introduction to the translation that he has intended this translation for the general reader and not for scholars; thus his version is a communicative translation. 3. Empirical Data 3. 1. Data Collection and Analysis Thirty-three examples of image metaphors of color identified in theShahnameh were located in two English translations, i. e. Warner & Warner (1925) and Davis (2007). It is worth noting that over forty-five metaphorical expressions of color were identified in the entire Shahnameh, but as Davis’ translation is not a complete translation, rather an abridged version, only thirty-three were applicable to this study. The first step in this procedure was to identify all terms/objects in theShahnameh that presented color imagery. This information was found in a list provided by Rastegar Fasaei (1990). Seventy-nine items were listed, but only thirty-three were applicable in this study, because the list was obviously not intended for metaphors of color, but rather a list indicatingterms that denote a color. Many of these terms were basic color terms, e. g. , which could not produce any potential metaphorical expression implying a color. They were mostly used in adjectival phrases describing a particular object or event. Therefore, all color terms were ruled out, as well as other terms which indicated some kind of ‘brightness’ or ‘shiny effect’, e. g. the expression , in which the metaphor implies that the sword is very shiny. Unfortunately, approximately eighteen of the items in this list were of this kind, representing brightness of an object, colors of the air, and colors of the earth, of which the latter two seemed ambiguous and impracticable for this study. As mentioned earlier, the translation by Davis is not a complete translation of the wholeShahnameh, as many episodes have been omitted. Therefore, several of the items in the list have occurred only in the sections not translated by Davis; hence, deleting them from the list was inevitable. Many of the terms in the list, unfortunately again, were observed only in the form of similes, and not metaphors; therefore, they could not be applied either. After settling on these thirty-three items, they were sought in aShahnameh software, in order to locate the couplets which contained these terms. The next step was to review each couplet to see which one had an image metaphor of color created with that specific term. For some terms, the frequency of occurrence was very high, e. g. approximately 400 couplets, which caused some difficulties in terms of being highly time-consuming. A minimum of one couplet carrying an image metaphor of color was chosen for each of the thirty-three instances via the Shahnamehsoftware. These examples were then initially located in the translation by Davis, as his is an abridged translation. Regarding this, he states in the Introduction to his book: â€Å"Given the poem’s immense length, some passages have inevitably been omitted, and others are presented in summary form† (Davis, 2007, xxxiv). After determining which of the examples were included in Davis’ translation, one couplet was eventually chosen for each instance, and then the corresponding expression was located in Warner & Warner’s translation. So far, there were thirty-three Persian examples of image metaphors of color, along with their corresponding expressions in the two English translations. These were the steps taken in the data collection stage. The next step was to analyze the collected data, which included determining the translation procedures involved in each of the two translations. The framework applied was Newmark’s (1988b) seven procedures introduced for translating metaphors. The goal here was not just determining which translator applied which procedure(s) and the frequency of each procedure, but also finding out whether any new procedures were applied other than Newmark’s. The study also aimed atdiscovering any possible translation patterns exclusive to each translator. The following three examples were selected as representatives of the collected data in this study. (?. – ?) The night was like jet dipped in pitch, there lent No planet luster to the firmament (Warner & Warner, vol. 3, p. 287) A night as black as coal bedaubed with pitch, A night of ebony, a night on which Mars, Mercury, and Saturn would not rise. (Davis, p. 306) In this ST context, the poet has depicted the scene as though the night has actually covered its face with pitch. Both translators have reproduced the same image in their TTs, thus likening the night to a black stone ( ) that has washed its exterior with pitch. (?. – ) Raised such a dust! But swift as dust they sped Till day’s cheeks turned to lapis-lazuli. (Warner & Warner, vol. 7, p. 67) They rode quickly until the day turned purple with dusk. (Davis, p. 642) The definition provided for is ‘a dark blue stone’; its translation by Emami is ‘lapis-lazuli, azure’. Britannica’s online dictionary definition forlapis-lazuli is ‘a semiprecious stone valued for its deep blue color’. Therefore, the first translator has again reproduced the same image through the same metaphor. The second translator, however, has converted the metaphor to its sense, i. e. the color it represents. ? ? (?. – ) This he said, And heaved a sigh. The colour of his cheek Turned from pomegranate-bloom to fenugreek (Warner & Warner, vol. 6, p. 25) Having said this he heaved a sigh from the depths of his being, and the rosy pomegranate petal turned as pale as fenugreek. (Davis, p. 455) The mental image of this ST metaphor is mapped onto the king’s face, describing the change of color in his complexion. The first translator has interestingly enough converted the metaphor to its sense, which seems rather a rare procedure for a semantic translation. The second translator, however, has reproduced the same image in TT2. 3. 2. Discussion Thirty-three cases of image metaphors of color were identified in theShahnameh and then located in two English translations, i. e. Warner & Warner (1925) and Davis (2007). Afterwards, the procedures applied by each translator in rendering these thirty-three items were identified. The framework chosen was that of Newmark’s (1988a). The analysis of the data showed that Warner and Warner applied five of Newmark’s suggested procedures in translating the specified image metaphors of color. They also presented two cases of wrong translation. In the following table, the procedures applied by Warner & Warner in translating the thirty-three image metaphors of color identified in this study and their frequency of occurrence, along with the corresponding percentages are shown. Table 4. 1. Frequency and percentage of procedures applied by Warner & Warner Procedure| Frequency| Percentage| Reproducing the same image in the TL| 23| 69. 69| Replacing the image in the SL with a standard TL image| 3| 9. 09| Translation of metaphor by simile, retaining the image| 1| 3. 03| Translation of metaphor by simile plus sense| 0| 0|. Conversion of metaphor to sense| 3| 9. 09| Deletion| 0| 0| Translation of metaphor by the same metaphor plus sense| 1| 3. 03| Wrong translation| 2| 6. 06| Total| 33| 100| As evident in this table, Warner & Warner have neither translated any metaphors by simile plus sense, nor deleted any metaphor. The most frequently applied procedure in their translations was the reproduction of the same image in the TL. The translation of the Shahnameh produced by Warner & Warner is a semantic translation, which clearly proves the reason as to why their most frequently applied procedure is the one mentioned above. â€Å"A semantic translation attempts to recreate the precise flavor and tone of the original: the words are ‘sacred’, not because they are more important than the content, but because form and content are one† (Newmark, 1988a, p. 47). The analysis of the data also shows that Davis has applied all seven procedures introduced by Newmark in translating these items. There was no evidence of any wrong translation. The following table presents the frequency of each procedure which was applied and also their percentages. Table 4. 2. Frequency and percentage of procedures applied by Davis Procedure| Frequency| Percentage|. Reproducing the same image in the TL| 12| 36. 36| Replacing the image in the SL with a standard TL image| 3| 9. 09| Translation of metaphor by simile, retaining the image| 3| 9. 09| Translation of metaphor by simile plus sense| 2| 6. 06| Conversion of metaphor to sense| 6| 18. 18| Deletion| 2| 6. 06| Translation of metaphor by the same metaphor plus sense| 5| 15. 15| Total| 33| 100| As indicated in the table, the most frequently used procedure by Davis is also the reproduction of the same image in the TL. He has opted for deletion of the image metaphor of color in two cases. In one of the two cases, his deletion seems to serve the purpose of a more easy-going, reader-friendly text (where the metaphoric elements seem complex or far-fetched to the target audience), whereas in the other case, his deletion seems somehow arbitrary or unjustifiable. The following table compares the two translations in terms of the percentage of procedures applied. P1 through P7 are the seven translation procedures involved in this study, also indicated in the previous table, and WT stands for wrong translation. Table 4. 3. Percentage of the procedures applied by both translators | P1| P2| P3| P4| P5| P6| P7| WT| Total %| W. & W. | 69. 69| 9. 09| 3. 03| 0| 9. 09| 0| 3. 03| 6. 06| 100| Davis| 36. 36| 9. 09| 9. 09| 6. 06| 18. 18| 6. 06| 15. 15| 0| 100| 4. Conclusion Thirty-three cases of image metaphors of color were extracted from theShahnameh and relocated in two English translations, i. e. Warner & Warner (1925) and Davis (2007). The main objective of the study was to determine which translation procedures introduced by Newmark (1988a) for translating metaphors in general were applied by the two above mentioned translators. According to the collected and analyzed data, Warner & Warner applied five of Newmark’s suggested procedures. The two procedures they did not apply at all were deletion and translation of metaphor by simile plus sense. The figures indicated that approximately 70% of the thirty-three cases had undergone Newmark’s first procedure, i. e. reproducing the same image in the TL, which was also considered the most frequently used procedure by Warner & Warner. This is a verification that their translation is indeed a semantic translation, as the objective in this type of translation is to recreate the ST, both its form and its content. This occurs to a great extent through literal/word-for-word translation, which is rather similar to the above- mentioned procedure. Davis, on the other hand, applied all seven of Newmark’s procedures in his translation of image metaphors of color. The most frequently used procedure was again, a reproduction of the same image in the TL (36%). The second aim was to determine whether any new procedures for translating image metaphors of color other than those proposed by Newmark for translating metaphors resulted from this study.

Hawthorne Studies (Organisational Behaviour)

HAWTHORNE STUDIES The most important contribution to the human relations movement within organizational behavior came out of the Hawthorne studies undertaken at western electric company’s Hawthorne works in Chicago in between 1924 and 1932. Main researches were Elton Mayo, Dickson, Whitehead, and Rothlisberger. The researchers originally set out to study the relationship between productivity and physical working conditions. They conducted various researches in four phases with each phase attempting to answer the question raised at the previous phase.The four phases were; 1. Experiments to determine the effects of changes in illumination on productivity; Illumination experiments (1924-27) 2. Experiments to determine the effects of changes in hours and other working conditions on productivity; Relay assembly test room experiments (1927-28). 3. Conducting plant wide interviews to determine worker attitudes and sentiments, Mass interviewing program (1928-30). 4. Determination and analysis of social organization at work; Bank wiring observation room experiments (1931-32). Illumination experiments:-The experiments began in 1924 and extended over several years. The purpose was to examine the relation of quality and quantity of illumination to efficiency of industrial workers. Control and experimental groups were established. The experimental group was presented with varying illumination intensities, while the control group worked under a constant intensity. The researches were surprised to see that productivity increased to roughly the same rate in both the test and control groups. It was only in final experiment, where they decreased illumination levels to 0. 0f foot candle (roughly moonlight intensity) that an appreciable decline in output occurred. The engineers concluded that illumination intensity was not directly related to group productivity, but they could not explain the behavior they had witnessed. Relay assembly test room experiments:- Relay assembly test room experiments were designed to determine the effect of changes in various job conditions on group productivity as the illumination experiments could not establish relationship between intensity of illumination and production.For this purpose, the researchers set up a relay assembly test room and two girls were selected. These girls were asked to choose four more girls as company-workers. Following ere the changes and the resultant outcomes; 1. The incentive system was changed so that each girl’s extra pay was based on the other five rather than output of larger group. The productivity increased as compared to before. 2. Two five-minute rests –one in morning session and other in the evening session – were introduced which were increased to ten minutes.The productivity increased. 3. The rest period was reduced to five minutes but frequency was increased. The productivity decreased slightly and the girls complained that frequent rest intervals affected the rhythm of the work. 4. The number of rest pauses was reduced to two of ten minutes each, but in the morning, coffee or soup was served along with sandwich and in the evening, snack was provided. The productivity increased. 5. Changes in working hours and workday were introduced. Productivity again increased.As each change was introduced, absenteeism decreased, morale increased and less supervision was required. Mass interviewing program During the course of experiments, about 20,000 interviews were conducted between 1928 and 1930 to determine employee’s attitude towards company, supervision, insurance plans, promotion and wages. Initially these interviews were conducted by means of direct questioning but later it was changed to non-directive interviewing where interviewer was asked to listen to instead of talking, arguing or advising.During the course of interviews, it was discovered that worker’s behavior was being influenced by group behavior. Bank wiring observatio n room experiments The concluding study at Hawthorne was significant because it confirmed that the importance of one aspect of the informal organization on worker productivity. Specifically, the researchers studied workers in the bank wiring room and found the behavioral norms set by the work group had a powerful influence over the productivity of a group. The higher the norms, the greater the productivity.The lower the norms, the lower the productivity. The power of the peer group and the importance of the group influence on individual behavior and productivity were confined in the bank wiring study. Findings ?Workplaces are social environments and people are motivated by much more than economic self-interest. ?The girls were allowed to have a friendly relationship with their supervisor and they felt happier at work. ?They felt like part of a team when changes were discussed in advance with them. Flowing from the findings of these investigations he came to certain conclusions as fo llows: Work is a group activity. oThe social world of the adult is primarily patterned about work activity. oThe need for recognition, security and sense of belonging is more important in determining workers' morale and productivity than the physical conditions under which he works. oA complaint is not necessarily an objective recital of facts; it is commonly a symptom manifesting disturbance of an individual's status position. oThe worker is a person whose attitudes and effectiveness are conditioned by social demands from both inside and outside the work plant. Informal groups within the work plant exercise strong social controls over the work habits and attitudes of the individual worker. oThe change from an established society in the home to an adaptive society in the work plant resulting from the use of new techniques tends continually to disrupt the social organization of a work plant and industry generally. oGroup collaboration does not occur by accident; it must be planned an d developed. If group collaboration is achieved the human relations within a work plant may reach a cohesion which resists the disrupting effects of adaptive society.

Management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words - 23

Management - Essay Example Fly Emirates has won international awards such as, Global Airline of the Year and the Fastest Growing Airline in the world. In 2007, this airline was ranked tenth amongst the top carriers worldwide in terms of revenue and passenger kilometer. In 2009, it was ranked as seventh largest airline in international passengers carried and fourth largest in scheduled international passenger kilometers flown. Recently in 2009, research consultancy firm Skytrax selected it as the fifth best airline in the world. Emirates provide quality service to its customers, flights are punctual, adequate and quality food is provided on boards and a lot of personalized services such as personal television and film library are complemented to the customers. Emirates Airline has also sponsored various events held in Dubai such as Dubai Shopping Festival, Dubai Summer Surprises, Dubai World Cup, Dubai Desert Classic and Dubai Tennis Championships. There are four major types of information systems, i.e. executive support system, management support system, decision support system and transaction support system. These are designed to support all organizations in carrying out their daily operations effectively and efficiently. All these four information systems correspond to each organizational level; Transaction Support System (TSS) operates at the operational level. Operational level system is the lowest level where the operational managers keep a sound track of all the primary activities and transactions that occur within the organization. The operational manager has to track sales, receipts, cash deposits, payroll, and make credit decisions and manage the basic flow of activities (Laudon, 2007). All these activities are carried out in a computerized system that performs and records the daily activities of the business. United Arab Emirates Airline might use this information system in booking Management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 6 Management - Essay Example 2011). The idea of launching the organization was to satisfy the needs of the families in diverse businesses. Families in the past face difficulty in coordinating family affairs and business. The business requires adequate concentration just like the family. Most of the businesspersons that coordinate with both family and business have faced intensive challenges. This illustrates that, for both the family and business to become successful, the businessperson needs to balance between the two entities. The introduction of the ‘Family Firm institute, Inc’ was mainly an idea to rescue the Los Angeles parents from both family and business frustrations. In the initial stage of the establishment of the organization, the ‘Family Firm institute, Inc’ faced challenges in attaining members (Your membership.com. 2011). Owners of the family members were not willing to join the organization because of the lack of enough information concerning the organization. Being a mem ber of the organization, the ‘Family Firm institute, Inc’ has enabled me to acquire skills in maintenance of the family business and remains responsible to the family affairs. In most cases, the owners of the family business lack the knowledge of maintaining an intimate relationship with the family and perform business activities. For this reason, the businesspersons fail in one of the fields because of failure in management of the family business and the other family related issues. ... It is not an easy task to maintain the business and other family responsibilities. For this reason, the ‘Family Firm institute, Inc’ has been doing a recommendable job in ensuring that the business owners are capable of achieving the best management skills. However, there are several diverse challenges that the Family Firm institute Inc has been facing in the past few years. The problems have given a negative feedback to the performance of the organization hence affecting the number of new enrollment staffs (Robert, 2011). However, one of the key problems that the ‘Family Firm institute, Inc’ is facing is the lack of a common understanding among the members of the organization. In any given organization, there should be an equivalent understanding between the employees and employers in terms of background and gender. The correlation of employees with each another to deliver outstanding duties and roles at the expected time interval. Conflict in the ‘Fa mily Firm institute, Inc’ arises majorly because of diversity in the educational backgrounds of the people, political difference and preferences, ethical heritage, gender and personal experiences (Robert, 2011). The conflict that arises between the employees has made it almost impossible for the ‘Family Firm institute, Inc’ to achieve its expected goals. The management and the employees lack the appropriate reinforcement to works together as a team to accomplish the roles and duties of the organization. The challenges affect the progress of the organization thus reduce the competence of the employees. The perception of the managers has even made it hard for the problem to be solved in the organization. The key role of the ‘Family Firm institute, Inc’ is to instill professional

Failure of the League of Nations Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Failure of the League of Nations - Essay Example The research illustrates that Great Britain, France, Italy, Japan, and later Germany and Russia – all great powers in their own right - joined the League of Nations and the United States, on the other hand, was the only major power not to join the League in spite of having been instrumental in creating it in the first place. This dichotomy i.e. the failure of the United States to join the League of Nations, in spite of being its staunchest advocate, could thus be ascribed to its inability to reconcile domestic political compulsions with its international obligations. Was this domestic compulsion a clash between the ‘realists’ and the ‘idealists’? This is the main theme that the research paper will seek to examine. The idealist view of international relations envisaged the creation of, â€Å"international institutions to replace the anarchical and war-prone balance-of-power system. The realist view,  on the other hand, viewed the state as the most i mportant player, subservient to no other (external) authority. The idealist view was endorsed by president Wilson who in his, â€Å"celebrated Fourteen Points speech, delivered before Congress in 1918, proposed the creation of the League of Nations†¦Ã¢â‚¬ . Although the League of Nations came into being in 1919, Congress refused to ratify the United States’ entry into the league. This challenge to President Wilson’s worldview was spearheaded by a group of Senators led by Senators Henry Cabot Lodge, William E. Borah, and Hiram Johnson. Part of the realist view was that the US should revert to its policy of ‘isolation’ that had been in vogue pre-World War I in keeping with the Monroe Doctrine. This was at odds with the League’s charter, which enjoined that, â€Å"the international community had not only the right but a duty to intervene in international conflicts†¦Ã¢â‚¬ .

North vs South - How the North won the Civil War Essay

North vs South - How the North won the Civil War - Essay Example Further, people wonder why the North failed to allow the Confederacy to secede peacefully. This paper will examine the military strategies and leadership, which facilitated the victory that the North enjoyed and the defeat of the South. There was an increasing discrepancy between the South and the North in terms of economic development, social structures and organizations and political ideologies. However, the two regions were alike during the founding of the new nation. Slavery was in the entire states, and the economic activities of the two regions had strong reinforcements from agricultural prosperity (Steele & Herbert 1996, p. 45)1. The Northern states designed a plan that would end slavery and enhance the emancipation of the slaves to ensure that they fought for their rights, freedom and liberty. Further, the collapse of the party system had remarkable contribution towards the victory of the North; the slavery issue received undue suppression from the laws of this party. The strength of the political parties had a negative influence from massive immigration of foreigners and debates pushing for the prohibition of slavery. There existed a deficiency in the governance of the states; the strong parties suffered from utter blows that weakened the running of the parties. The confederacy and the union had confidence that they would win the war with a lot of ease (Hattaway & Jones 1991, p. 63).2The two regions believed that their outstanding advantages over the other side would bring ultimate victory to them. On the side of the confederacy, they believed that they had a better position to win the war because the Generals from South had advanced training, and most of the whites on that side were conversant with firearms and horses. Further, the South had plans of fighting a defensive war against the Northern region, and enjoy foreign economies, which meant that the economic might of the south

Technology and a Just Society Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 4

Technology and a Just Society - Assignment Example As a point of departure, technology has influenced human life on the globe through diverse innovations, which have contributed to life transformation. When all classes of people in a society are treated equally, even the impact of technology is universal. It is realizable that, life takes a different dimension for various classes of people in a society when injustice is evident in embracing life-changing technological activities for the poor. For instance, Deborah and Wetmore argue that the technology of appliances pushed the servants to the corner, because they became unnecessary, and the servant class’s children began to go to college. This implies that they transformed into the middle class. This technological innovation represents a mixed blessing. First, it pushes the servants (employees) to the poor class and second, it propels the servant class to the middle class. According to Deborah and Wetmore, he thinks of pushing technological innovation towards a different and modern direction. Dyson asserts that technology should be pushed from that of making toys for the rich to the basic needs of the poor. Majority of the poor people would choose to live in the rural areas as long as the technology is applied to make the places rich. Dyson’s argument advances to the point of proposing that poverty can be reduced through three ways of technological developments, which includes solar energy, genetic engineerin g, and the internet. Advancement of this development will open up remote areas and consequent. On the other hand, the aspect of Embodiment and Virtuality is fundamental to changing the lives of people. In actual sense, expansion in technology contributes to the expansion of possibilities of the virtual such as surrogacy, cloning among others.

HIV Affecting the South Bronx Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

HIV Affecting the South Bronx - Research Paper Example 893-894). The South Bronx population is rising at the moment (South Bronx Resurrection, 2004). Efforts have been made to improve the region since the days of arson, and the South Bronx is said to be actually recovering now. However, this region lies in the poorest congressional district of the nation (Tax Foundation, 2007) and majority of the Bronx’s housing projects are present there. 50% of the population is below the poverty line. Drug trafficking, gang activity, and prostitution are among the usual crimes carried out within the South Bronx. The rate of crime is very high and the regions where the crimes are common are, in fact, NYPD impact zones. Service Facilities It was made sure that the completion of the Yankee Stadium coincided with the beginning of the 2009 baseball season. It is not yet known, however, when the athletic fields and green spaces would be completed. The stadium has been facing opposition the reasons being pollution and traffic (New Yankee Stadium, 2009 ). Building of the new Yankee Stadium led to major controversy over plans. These plans included new athletic fields, tennis courts, bicycle and walking paths, stores and restaurants. There was also a metro-north railroad station that was expected to help in the easing of rush on the subway (Hughes, 2007). Authorities were hopeful that such advancements would allow for the generation of residential building. The late 1980s witnessed certain regions of the South Bronx being renewed. Rehabilitation was done and residential structures were constructed; these included subsidized multifamily town homes as well as apartment buildings (Wynn, 2005). Construction of prefabricated ranch style houses was completed in that region by 1985, and this brought about such a major change to the region that it was difficult for the Bronx historian to recognize the place where carter surveyed the scene (Fernandez, 2007). Few of the community school districts are located in the South Bronx (New York City Department of Education). The public schools of that region include three charter schools. A new elementary charter school, Academic Leadership Charter School was initiated in 2009. Profit as well as nonprofit organizations are set up in the South Bronx and they train people for their professional purposes. Besides this educational programs are also offered. One such example of a nonprofit organization is per scholas and it gives free training in its respective field allowing the citizens to secure jobs assisting them in constructing their careers. Per scholas works together with some middle schools of the region, their students and their families providing help and assistance in the field of computer. Citizens of the South Bronx travel in vehicles or through mass transit. According to certain development plans there will be built a South Bronx Greenway (South Bronx Greenway) for connecting south to Randalls Island and north along the Bronx River. A large majority of the citizens of the 16th congressional district, 77.3% to be exact, did not have their own vehicles, and around the whole city it was 55% (Fact Sheet, Rep. Jose E. Serrano, 2000). The citizens of the south Bronx have recreational facilities too and they enjoy

Form of prose for photography projects Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Form of prose for photography projects - Essay Example The interpreter basic objective is to find the actual intentions especially in the case of Scripture to know the truth and establish the meaning of the work during the author’s times. Exegesis is written on religious Scripture like the New Testament. In short, exegesis is an inquiry into the meaning of historical facts written in scriptures. Exegesis includes the two aspects of what the author said and why the author said during that time. Hence, exegesis deals with the intention of a written piece of work. Exegesis is also written to know about the primary reader’s response to a historical writing. Thus the interpretation includes the argument of the primary writer’s and reader’s perspective to a literature or scripture. A report is a collection of information put together in a pre-determined format. The information is identified, investigated and reported on the basis of happenings in an organisation or from an investigation. Reports may give rise to fut ure events. The objective of a report is to create awareness in the reader about a particular event or happening. There are three main aspects to a report. They are pre-determined format, independent parts and the unbiased conclusion. Report is different from essays because report includes several headings and sub-heading that convey each event or outcome of an event. Reports usually include numerical representation of an event. A report does not give much freedom to the writer because the report should follow the format.

Scholarship Statement - Rail Club Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Scholarship Statement - Rail Club - Essay Example Visit me during my office hours when you can because I would like for you to learn about the operations program we have at Cal Poly.† That encounter caused a 180 degree turn in my academic orientation, resulting in a change of my major to operations management and finance. The study of operations management enabled me to find my true passion for a professional career. Upon completing the Long Beach masters program in May 2012, I will be qualified to work for in the transportation industry. My penultimate goal is to have my own logistics conglomerate so that I can provide services to small and medium size companies that have worthy products ready to make a presence at the international level. My choice to major in operations management emerged logically out of a number of drives and passions. Operations management suffuses my whole being with passion because it is an industry where one as a manager or executive is confronted with daily challenges to meet operational goals, which requires being open to constant innovation of the system. I personally like to challenge myself and solve problems because it allows for growth as a professional within the job. A fast-paced, innovative, constantly changing workplace appeals to me and resonates with me psychically. Operations management is also a place where inefficiencies can be found.